Denim may be the most popular fabric in the world today. According to anthropologists Daniel Miller and Sophie Woodward, “On any given day, nearly half the world’s population is in jeans.” Yet decades before Levi Strauss sold his first pair of blue jeans, denim was being used to create workwear of all kinds, for both men and women. Histories of denim often disregard its use in women’s wear, identifying it as a menswear textile first, originally used for pants. These histories also tend to ignore high fashion uses of the textile, treating them as peripheral. Such gendered interpretations miss the variety and breadth of denim’s history.
Denim: Fashion’s Frontier takes a wider view, shedding new light on the evolution of this durable cotton fabric. Using objects that date from the nineteenth century to the present, the exhibition juxtaposes examples of workwear with high fashion, street style with commercial garments, and menswear with women’s wear, in order to explore the multifaceted history of denim clothing.
The exhibition’s historic chronology begins with rare pieces of denim work wear from the 19th century, including a pair of work pants from the 1830s-40s that predate Levi Strauss & Co.’s jeans production and a woman’s work jacket from the late 19th century, which demonstrates that denim was not only a menswear fabric.
Building on the already established tradition of denim workwear, Levi Strauss & Co. (Levi’s) first marketed its metal-riveted, denim pants during the nineteenth-century California Gold Rush. Patented in 1873, the Levi’s model continues to dominate the market as the standard blue jean.
These man’s pants are entirely hand-stitched. Principally made from a brushed cotton, they are similar to modern-day corduroy, but they have been patched across the knees and thighs with denim. This use demonstrates that, by the mid-19th century, denim was already prized for its durability. These pants are thus an extremely rare precursor to the modern blue jean.
Blue brushed cotton and denim, circa 1840, USA, P86.64.3, museum purchase
This jacket would have been worn over a woman’s work dress or blouse, most likely while she labored outdoors. Its construction mimics the fashionable hourglass silhouette of the period, with tucks that cinch at the wrists and natural waistline. Denim is typically thought of as a menswear textile, but it was also common in women’s workwear during the 19th century.
Blue denim, circa 1850, USA, P87.43.3, museum purchase
Levi Strauss & Co.’s 501® model is widely considered to be the “original” blue jean. Patented in 1873, Levi’s® denim trousers included copper rivets at different stress points—points that can be seen carefully outlined in the patent on the wall at left. Now a mainstay of jeans around the world, the specific placement of these rivets has not changed in more than 150 years (except for the distinctive “crotch” rivet, which was removed during World War II due to rationing).
Blue denim, circa 1953, USA, 89.50.2, gift of Richard Martin
By the start of the 20th century, denim was regularly used for a variety of clothing, from prison garb to naval uniforms. Also on view in this section is a fashionable women’s walking suit from the 1910s rendered entirely in a striped, white denim. Cut in accordance with the fashionable silhouette of the time, the ensemble illustrates the widening applications for denim.
The hat, jacket, and pants of this prisoner uniform are entirely made from denim, the use of which was standard throughout the American correctional system for the first half of the 20th century. This uniform belonged to Thomas Mott Osborne, a prison reformer and founder of The Mutual Welfare League (now known as the Osborne Association). He acquired it while posing as a sentenced criminal at Auburn Prison as part of an undercover operation to expose the harsh realities of prison life.
Gray denim and linen, 1913, USA, 93.26.1, gift of Lithgow Osborne
This suit follows the fashionable silhouette of the 1910s, with its raised waistline, elongated, tunic-like jacket, and skirt that falls just above the ankles. Rendered in tough and durable denim, it represents a trend toward more utilitarian fabrics that arose during World War I. As fashion historian Birgit Haase describes, “Simplicity and functionality were the fashion watchwords of the day.”
Off-white striped denim, circa 1916, USA, P85.35.2, museum purchase
This workwear ensemble is fabricated from chambray, a close relative of denim. Chambray is created from interwoven white and blue threads (of linen, in this case). Like denim, the warp thread is colored, while the weft thread is white. The ensemble follows the same silhouette as the striped walking suit on view next to it, indicating an interest, at that time, in mimicking fashionable forms in women’s workwear.
Blue linen chambray, 1912-1915, Canada, 2015.22.3, museum purchase
The sailor ensemble seen here dates from the 1920s. The United States Navy first introduced flared pants in 1905, and denim during World War I. Sailor’s pants were designed with flares to make them easier to roll up when swabbing the deck. Such pants were a precursor to the bell-bottom jeans of the hippie movement. In fact, many hippies bought their first flares from Army/Navy surplus stores.
Blue denim, circa 1925, USA, P91.51.9, museum purchase
Denim further shed its working-class associations during the interwar years. Two distinct genres of lifestyle clothing helped link denim to the romance of the Old West and the American spirit: “Western wear” emerged parallel to the booming popularity of “cowboy” films and dude ranch vacationing, while “play clothes” were designed to outfit fashionable men and women who engaged in leisure activities.
With the onset of World War II, the link between denim and the American spirit went global. G.I.s abroad wore jeans when they were off duty, and denim-clad “Rosie the Riveter” became the poster girl of the home front. Simultaneously, a new market blossomed for practical-yet-fashionable clothing for the affluent housewife, which included Claire McCardell’s denim “Popover” dress.
This “play” ensemble is made entirely of denim. “Play clothes” developed during the 1930s to outfit fashionable men and women for a variety of leisure activities, from sailing to tennis. Play clothes gave rise to certain denim styles that have remained sportswear staples, from high-waisted denim shorts to one-piece denim “play-suits.”
Blue striped denim, circa 1940, USA, P92.25.3, museum purchase
This pajama-style shirt was meant to be worn loose and untucked. It is ideal for the beach or while vacationing in the countryside. This style of shirt emerged during the 1930s in the new “play clothes” category, and it has remained a feature of “Ivy Style” dressing ever since. The use of denim in this example points to a widening use of the fabric in fashionable menswear.
Blue denim, circa 1940, USA, P91.55.4, museum purchase
“Lee Riders” were Lee’s answer to the Levi’s 501®. First introduced around 1924 as the “101 Cowboy Pant,” they were renamed “Lee Riders” in 1944. Lee developed a few distinctive elements to distinguish its jeans from the Levi’s® model, such as the “Lazy-S” stitching on the back pockets, and a “U-Shaped Saddle Crotch” (for ease of horse-riding). These features were highlighted in advertisements geared toward the new dude ranch vacationer.
Blue denim, circa 1946, USA, 85.62.2, gift of Phyllis Feldkamp
For this blouse, Elsa Schiaparelli used a textile reminiscent of chambray, and adorned it with tinted, pearl buttons. Pearl-essence buttons were, by this time, a distinctive feature of rodeo shirts that companies like Levi’s® produced to outfit dude ranch vacationers. By combining elements of “blue collar” and rodeo shirts, Schiaparelli made a couture homage to Americana.
Blue cotton and pearl, circa 1947, France, 70.57.36, gift of Mr. Rodman A. Heeren
Claire McCardell first designed her “Popover” dress in 1942. Made of denim, it was durable, easy to clean, and came complete with a matching oven-mitt, making it the perfect ensemble for affluent women to wear while tending to their households. The original design debuted in Harper’s Bazaar with the tag-line, “I’m doing my own work.” It was a huge success, and McCardell regularly featured the style in subsequent collections.
Blue denim and red cotton, circa 1942, USA, 72.54.1, gift of Bessie Sustersic for the McCardell Show
During World War II, many women had to step into jobs previously held by men; three million women joined the work force in the United States. The denim jumpsuit became an emblem of the home front, immortalized by “Rosie the Riveter,” who appeared on posters and in songs to boost morale throughout the war.
Blue denim, 1942-1945, USA, 2007.63.7, gift of David Toser
As the American middle class settled into suburbia during the 1950s, denim suddenly became controversial. The influence of films like 1955’s Rebel Without a Cause (and the jeans worn in the movie by James Dean) caused denim to be equated with teenage rebellion and delinquency. The denim industry worked to counteract these negative connotations—by founding The Denim Council, for example—but from the 1950s on, denim’s cultural identity has been dominated by countercultural and street-style associations.
This was especially true of the hippie movement of the 1960s. For the hippies, clothing was a canvas for political expression, and denim was their ubiquitous fabric. The hippies’ use of denim established trends that long outlived the movement, such as bell-bottom jeans, embroidered and patched denim, and faded, pre-worn jeans.
Levi Strauss & Co. debuted its denim jacket in 1905, giving it lot number 506. In 1953, it introduced a second jacket model, known as the 507, seen here. Present on both versions (after 1936) was the bright red “LEVI’S” tab. Created at the height of the dude ranch era, the recognizable tab branded Levi’s® products so that they could be identified at a glance.
Blue denim, circa 1955, USA, 89.50.1, gift of Richard Martin
This skirt has been decorated in the manner of “poodle skirts,” so named for their distinctive use of appliqués, often in the shape of perfectly groomed poodles. Here, however, the appliqués appear as vegetables. The cut of poodle skirts mimicked Dior’s “New Look” silhouette, but could be made at home from inexpensive materials. The use of blue denim for this skirt is intriguing, given the controversy surrounding the textile at the time.
Blue denim and stuffed appliqués, circa 1952, USA, 90.26.1, gift of Beatrice A. Feingold
Phelps Deep Country Clothes (Elizabeth Phelps) shorts
“Deep Country Clothes” was a specialty line created by fashion designer Elizabeth Phelps during the 1950s. Designated as “occupational leisure-wear,” the line was aimed at the fashionable housewife. This label was one of many that attempted to align denim with the lifestyle of postwar suburbia.
Navy striped denim, circa 1954, USA, 85.62.1, gift of Phyllis Feldkamp
After World War II, Levi’s® unveiled its denim “Ranch Pants” for women. The “Ranch Pants” were a modified version of the earlier “Lady Levi’s” style. They featured a side zipper and a slimmer, fashionable silhouette. Although “Lady Levi’s” had been marketed for women to wear on a ranch, the new “Ranch Pants” were more likely to appear in suburbia.
Blue denim, circa 1955, USA, 74.44.17, gift of Mrs. Burton Tremaine
Bonnie Cashin was a great American sportswear designer. Like McCardell, she had an interest in functionality, and she was not afraid to experiment with materials like brass clasps and leather. Here, Cashin has given the traditional denim beach ensemble her personal touch by including both a brass clasp at the neck of the coat and light blue leather trim along its edges.
Blue denim, cotton, leather, 1960, USA, 90.72.17, gift of the Estate of Bonnie Cashin
These worn, torn, patched, and embroidered jeans highlight techniques employed by the 1960s counterculture movement that shifted denim’s cultural identity. “Hippies” would often wear pre-owned clothes, which they would patch and embroider by hand. The personalized garments functioned as political statements against the material-driven consumer culture of postwar America. Denim was particularly favored because of its working-class connotations, natural cotton fibers, durability, and ease-of-care.
Blue denim, embroidery, leather, appliqué, beads, circa 1969, USA, 80.176.1, gift of Jay Good
Across this entire garment is a print generated from a photograph of the 1969 Woodstock Art & Music Fair. By the start of the 1970s, fashion designers and retailers alike were looking to the hippies’ politicized style as a source of inspiration. These shorts may be the epitome of this commercialization—the hippies themselves have been appropriated as a decorative device.
Photo-printed denim, circa 1969, USA, P89.57.57, museum purchase
By the early 1970s, denim was appearing in the work of esteemed fashion designers. Yves Saint Laurent treated it as a luxury fabric, and later in the decade, European companies, such as Fiorucci, launched a craze for “Italian” and “French” jeans. These companies used sex to sell their skin-tight jeans, which were often so snug that wearers had to lie down to zip them up. During the 1980s, fashion designers continued to experiment with denim, playing with elements of the textile’s heritage. For example, Ralph Lauren’s 1981 “Prairie” collection fused “Western wear” details with early-1980s silhouettes. The trend for hard, European denim gave way to a demand for soft, faded jeans. This led to the popularization of finishing techniques, such as stone- and acid-washing, typified in the work of Guess and Marithé + François Girbaud.
Yves Saint Laurent began introducing denim looks into his Rive Gauche ready-to-wear line during the late 1960s. He translated many of his signature styles into denim, such as this “safari” jacket, which typically would have been produced in a cotton khaki. Saint Laurent’s fascination with denim was directly connected to his interest in what young people were wearing on the street.
Blue denim, circa 1970, France, 82.183.4, gift of Alida Miller
Menswear designer John Weitz was known for his experiments with color, workwear influences, and new cuts. Here, Weitz has created a man’s leisure suit using denim and red bandana fabric, in lieu of traditional suiting materials. This links the ensemble to cowboy and “Old West” folklore, yet the leisure silhouette gives it a modern twist.
Blue denim and red cotton, summer 1972, USA, 93.12.1, gift of John Weitz, Inc.
The trend for unisex styles and denim proliferated across every fashion category of the 1970s, including swimwear. On view here are two bathing suits produced from a bleached denim and constructed to mimic a loincloth. The pre-washed treatment of the denim foreshadows the elaborate finishing treatments manufacturers would apply to denim in the decades to come.
Left: Bleached and tie-dyed denim, circa 1973, USA, 78.100.1, gift of Stephen Bruce RIght: Bleached and tie-dyed denim, circa 1973, USA, 8.100.2, gift of Stephen Bruce
During the 1970s, denim made its debut as a suiting material. At the same time, the “leisure suit” emerged as a fixture of the fashionable man’s wardrobe. Leisure suits were characterized by their relaxed, elongated jackets, and were often paired with flared pants. The all-denim leisure suit seen here is a clear homage to Yves Saint Laurent’s unisex safari suits and jackets.
Blue denim, circa 1973, USA, 85.161.8, gift of Chip Tolbert
This “Western wear” vest follows the silhouette of men’s 19th-century waistcoats. Western wear clothes had developed earlier during the 20th century out of fantasy-driven nostalgia for the 19th-century “Wild West,” as it was depicted in Hollywood films. The renaissance of such styles during the 1970s grew in tandem with denim’s surging mainstream popularity.
Blue denim, circa 1975, USA, 2015.51.4, gift of Pepper Hemingway
In 1978, Calvin Klein introduced a line of “designer” jeans. Based on the “European” style, they were high-waisted and tight. They featured a distinctive stitch pattern on the back pockets and a “Calvin Klein” label that branded the jeans as a status symbol. Klein became known for his overtly sexual advertising campaigns—most famously, those featuring fifteen-year-old Brooke Shields. When asked about his marketing approach, Klein declared, “Jeans are sex.”
Blue denim, 1979, USA, 80.94.2, gift of Mr. Calvin Klein
During the 1970s, American heritage brand Wrangler began abandoning its traditional products for more fashionable denim looks. Rendered in a red, white, and blue patchwork-print denim, these Wrangler “Flare Leg” jeans appropriate the aesthetic of the counterculture movement. The only links to traditional Wrangler jeans are the signature “W” stitching and the leather label on the back pockets.
Multi-color printed denim, circa 1973, USA, P92.47.1, museum purchase
During the 1970s, “European” jeans became a cultural obsession. High-rise and extremely tight, their fit highlighted the curves of the female body. Elio Fiorucci’s Italian “Safety Jeans” for women were a clear homage to Levi’s® original five-pocket model. The hyper-sexualized ads that heralded them focused on model’s posteriors, and their sexy fit made “Safety Jeans” de rigeur with the fashionable set at Studio 54.
Black denim, 1979, ItalyT, 81.145.20l, gift of Naomi Sims
Ralph Lauren’s famous 1981 “Prairie” collection played on the romance of the “Old West.” Denim and chambray featured heavily in the looks. Here, Lauren combined a chambray dress with fringed leather gloves, Navajo jewelry, and the oversized silhouette prevalent in early 1980s fashion. To further romanticize his collection, Lauren shot the advertising campaign outside, in overgrown fields, against the background of an open plain.
Blue chambray, wool, painted leather, 1981, USA, 2000.93.1, gift of Lisa Battista Giglio
Los Angeles-based Guess was another important company known for its stone-washed jeans. The Guess line was started in 1981 on a mere $100,000 investment, but by 1984 had ballooned into a nearly $160-million-business. Guess introduced a variation on stone-washing known as “acid-washing.” In this technique, jeans are washed with stones presoaked in bleach, which breaks the fabric down further and creates a decorative effect across the garment.
Bleached and stone-washed denim, circa 1986, USA, 90.150.20, gift of Janet Waring
This ensemble was made entirely from a Levi’s® denim jacket. Designer Kenzo Takada created it for the November 1986 “Decorated Denim AIDS Benefit.” For the event, designers were given a classic Levi’s® jacket and told to turn it into something unique to be auctioned off for charity. Kenzo took the man’s workwear garment and entirely deconstructed it before reconstructing it as a sexy cropped top and ultra-mini skirt.
Repurposed Levi Strauss & Co. jacket, blue denim, appliqués, sequins, 1986, USA, 86.151.1, gift of Mr. and Mrs. Peter Bernstein
This dress plays on the traditional five-pocket jean by utilizing dark denim fabric, top-stitching, and brass-finished snaps. The complex seams act as their own form of embellishment, drawing the eye to the curves of the wearer’s body. Designer Franco Moschino was known for his playful approach to fashion. For him, fashion was not merely about creating clothing, but facilitating a witty and sometimes flirtatious repartee between the wearer and his or her observers.
Black denim, circa 1988, Italy, 93.159.99, gift of Ady Gluck-Frankel
By the end of the century, denim had emerged as a true luxury item on the runways of Gucci, Katharine Hamnett, and Gianfranco Ferré. This spawned a “premium denim” market pioneered by companies like 7 For All Mankind and Acne. In contrast, the burgeoning Japanese denim industry focused on historic details of American heritage brands such as Lee, Levi’s®, and Wrangler, creating meticulous reproductions of vintage denim.
Moschino was known for his humorous and sometimes biting commentary on fashion trends. Here, he targets “logomania,” one of the biggest trends of the 1990s, with printed black and white “MOSCHINO” columns that mimic the bleaching treatments typical of designer denim at the time. The “Moschino Jeanius” phrase on the sweatshirt is a further self-aware play on logo T-shirts.
Sweatshirt: Cotton, 1990, Italy, 91.256.2, gift of Richard Martin
Jeans: Printed denim, circa 1990, Italy, 2010.74.29, gift of Michael H. Harrell
French designer Jean Paul Gaultier has often used denim in his work. As a pioneer of underwear-as-outerwear, Gaultier here used denim to fabricate a corset, shaping the denim around the body so that the stiff rows of top-stitching function as boning.
Blue denim, circa 1992, France, 99.80.2, museum purchase
This ensemble from Gianfranco Ferré mimics the look of denim, but it is made entirely from luxurious silk. Ferré created this illusion by using a silk that blends dark blue and white threads. He also included orange-yellow top-stitching and copper-finished buttons—design features Levi’s® pioneered on its riveted jeans during the late 19th century.
Dark blue silk, spring 1999, Italy, 99.83.6, gift of Gianfranco Ferré S.p.A.
In 1999, Tom Ford showed this pair of ripped, distressed, and embellished jeans as part of his spring collection for luxury brand Gucci. Ford built the collection around references to the 1960s counterculture movement. When these feathered jeans reached stores they cost up to $3,800, which stunned the press. More shocking was that the first shipment sold out before they even reached the stores.
Blue denim, feathers, beads, and cotton jersey, spring 1999, Italy, 2015.7.1, gift of Gucci
Tommy Hilfiger became widely known during the early 1990s when hip-hop artists such as Raekwon of Wu-Tang Clan and Snoop Doggy Dogg were regularly photographed in his clothes. They often sported oversized “Tommy” or “H” logo T-shirts, while Tommy jeans sagged around their hips. The distinctive “sagged” style of wearing jeans became heavily associated with prison and gang culture, placing denim at the center of controversy reminiscent of its reputation in the 1950s.
Black denim, cotton, nylon, 1999, USA, 99.122.2, gift of Tommy Hilfiger USA
When 7 For All Mankind (7FAM) first launched, the company made one style of jeans: bootcut for women, recognizable by the distinctive stitching on the back pocket and pinstripe down the center calf. The jeans also contained stretch fibers for better fit and comfort. 7FAM made headlines when its jeans surpassed the $100 price-tag threshold, paving the way for the contemporary premium jeans market.
Blue denim, circa 2004, USA, 2015.66.1, museum purchase
Junya Watanabe crafted this dress from pre-owned blue jeans, and draped it so that the top-stitching forms a sweeping effect that mimicking a 19th-century boned bodice. Patricia Mears notes a correlation between the dress and the “sweet homeliness . . . of an Americana ‘prairie look’ in the style of Ralph Lauren.” While Watanabe drew on the hippies’ use of repurposed denim, his deft construction skills offer a unique, incredibly complex exploration of the methodologies of the counterculture movement.
Repurposed blue denim jeans, spring 2002, Japan, 2010.37.12, museum purchase
This coat mimics an 18th-century man’s cut-away coat in both its overall silhouette and the elaborate floral embroidery that encircles its edges. By rendering the look in faded denim and pairing it with a matching mini skirt and bustier, Roberto Cavalli created a look perfectly in line with his distinctive, sexy style. Called the “King of Sex” by Women’s Wear Daily, Cavalli was known for his high-low combinations and over-the-top opulence.
Embroidered blue denim and silk, spring 2003, Italy, 2003.45.2, gift of Roberto Cavalli
Luxury company Fendi pioneered the “It” bag phenomenon with its “Baguette” bag of the 1990s. The “Baguette” often featured 18 carat gold hardware and intricate brocades or jacquards. Given this heritage, the choice of denim for this “Spy” bag seems a bit out of character, but Silvia Ventura Fendi is known for her playful approach. She is not afraid to experiment with high-low combinations.
Embroidered grey denim, rhinestones, leather, spring 2007, Italy, 2007.25.2, gift of Fendi
Today, contemporary designers often incorporate denim through postmodern pastiche and deconstruction, taking apart classic denim garments and putting them back together as historic homages. This approach references the textile’s journey through shifting cultural associations. As Daniel Miller and Sophie Woodward suggest, “[J]eans seem to have taken on the role of expressing something about the changing world that no other clothing could achieve.” This is true not only of jeans, but of denim itself, making it a powerful tool within fashion.
Studio D’Artisan is the oldest brand of the “Osaka Five”—a group of Japanese denim companies renowned for reproductions of historic denim known as “new vintage.” Levi’s® is particularly revered within this circle, which can be seen here in the whimsical play on the brand’s double-arch (or “arcuate”) pocket stitching and famous leather label: rather than two horses, two pigs pull apart a pair of jeans. These jeans are based on a pair of World War I-era Levi’s®.
Blue denim
2015, Japan, 2015.67.1, museum purchase
These jeans are made from KAPITAL’s “Century Denim.” It feels and functions like denim, but technically is not. It is created using the sashiko and sumi techniques, both of which were developed during the Edo period in Japan to impart strength to a garment. With sashiko, a series of running stitches reinforce the fabric. In sumi, the color is painted on top of the threads, forming a protective layer that will fade over time—much like the color of denim.
Sumi (charcoal) and indigo dyed cotton, 2015, Japan, 2015.69.1, gift of KAPITAL
Fashion label Sacai is known for a distinctive aesthetic built on complex layering that fuses sporty and feminine styles. Designer Chitose Abe often disassembles recognizable garments of western fashion and reassembles them in fascinating ways. Here, Abe plays with the tradition of the denim vest, shorts, and jean skirt, layering them with more luxurious, feminine fabrics, such as shears and velvets.
Blue denim, red velvet, black net, and ribbon, spring 2015, Japan, 2015.37.2, museum purchase
This jacket plays on Yves Saint Laurent’s safari jackets. For this collection, Dries Van Noten was heavily influenced by the 1970s and used denim as a vehicle for pastiche and historical homage. Van Noten created the denim he used by replacing the traditionally white weft threads of denim with a gold Lurex, giving the textile a subtle glow.
Blue and gold denim and silk, spring 2015, Belgium, 2015.43.1, gift of Dries Van Noten
This ensemble is a clear homage to the “Union All” jumpsuit pioneered by Lee in the 1910s. Designed as womenswear, the look immediately evokes associations with the World War II folk heroine “Rosie the Riveter.” While retaining the aesthetic of the original all-in-one jumpsuit, this Chloé ensemble is actually comprised of a shirt and pants.
Blue denim and pink suede, spring 2015, France, 2015.39.1, gift of Chloé
Ralph Lauren Three-piece suit(Center)
Ralph Lauren included this denim suit in his spring 2015 menswear collection. It fuses a modern, slim silhouette with the classic three-piece suit. Rendered in denim, it evokes the tradition of the 1970s denim leisure suit, but for the runway it was accessorized with a watch fob chain, lending it a late 19th-century feel. In essence, this single look brings together several disparate references as a historical bricolage.
Blue denim, cotton, and silk, spring 2015, 2015.47.2, gift of Ralph Lauren Corporation
